While West Francia fits the model of feudalism as a way to maintain social and economic control over increasingly autonomous nobles, other regions do not fit the pattern.

The Ottonians

East Francia came to be controlled by a family from the northern duchy of Saxony, led by Count Liudolf (d. 866) and Count Otto (d. 912). Saxony had become an important administrative district after Charlemagne’s conquests in the early 9th century. In 919, Otto's son Henry the Fowler was proclaimed king at a meeting of nobles in the empire. Henry's successors were all called Otto-- Otto I, Otto II, and Otto III-- so the dynasty is today known as the Ottonians.

Unlike in West Francia, in East Francia the aristocrats had to co-operate militarily against the threat of Slavic and Magyar invasions from the east. Henry fought on the Slavic frontier and constructed a network of palaces.

Henry’s son Otto I (936-73) succeed him as king. Otto annexed Lotharingia, where his sister Gerberga was de facto regent. His status was enhanced by his victory against the Magyars at the Battle of Lechfeld (955). Otto invaded Italy in the 960s and had himself crowned Roman Emperor in 962. Eventually, Otto gained control of about 70% of the former Carolingian Empire.

The Empire Strikes Back

Otto II and III recreated some of the political structures of the Carolingian Empire. They governed via political assemblies and close alliances between bishops and emperors. They also sponsored intellectual and artistic achievements, as the Carolingians had. For example, Hrotsvitha of Gandersheim (c. 935-73), a canoness in Lower Saxony, wrote plays, poems about saints, and accounts of the deeds of Otto I and Otto II. Next week, we'll discuss the Ottonians' connection to Gerbert of Aurillac (later Pope Sylvester II, 946-1003), who was, among other things, a pioneering mathematician and ally of the Ottonians.

However, the Ottonians never achieved the same centralization as the Carolingians. They passed few laws. They had less direct control over their aristocrats. Still, the realm was sufficiently stable that it did not disintegrate when Otto III acceded to the throne as a 3-year-old child in 983. The empire was initially run by his mother, the Byzantine princess Theophanu (who also reportedly introduced the fork to Europe, among other things).

Read This Read letters to Theophanu from the West Frankish Queen Emma (not to be confused with Emma of Normandy) and Hugh Capet

After Otto III grew up, he conquered Rome itself. He died of fever after being expelled by a Roman mob in 1002.

Optional: explore these manuscript illuminations associated with Otto III. What were the illuminators trying to communicate about Otto's power, wealth, and authority? (They come from Munich, BSB Clm 4453 ff. 23v-24r)

Electoral Colleges

This empire would eventually become known as the 'Holy Roman Empire'. Its territory would vary, but continued to cover parts of modern-day Germany, Switzerland, and Eastern Europe. This area was controlled by different dynasties in the following centuries. Breaks between dynasties would be resolved when nobles in the region chose the next king. By around 1300, there was collegium (collection or college) of electors-- a few high-ranking princes and bishops-- who chose the next emperor. The practice of the electors electing an emperor was codified into law with the Golden Bull of 1356.