British Rule and WWII

The British conquest/acquisition of India mirrored earlier empires, in some ways, such as the mix of direct and local rule. There were critical differences however; the British ruling elite did not marry into native elites, and there were greater attempts to eradicate 'uncivilized' and implement 'civilized' customs. This would lead to a strong nationalist movement but also push apart Hindu and Muslim natives who had largely coexisted under the Mughals.

The increasing British presence in South Asia led to social and cultural conflict between the British and natives, and exacerbated differences between Hindus and Muslims. The British East India Company had in the eighteenth century tried to minimize social conflict, initially from its weak position and later from its fear of jeopardizing its revenues; in particular it often hindered missionary activity. But with the acquisition of more territory and more direct British oversight, this changed and the British began to see their role in South Asia as a civilizing one.

Colonial Conflicts

Protestant missionary activity became more pronounced, but it was really the cultural actions that caused true anger - the destruction of Hindu and Buddhist temples and the attacks on elements of religious and culture. One particular target was sati, the ritual suicide by immolation of a deceased man's widow. The British were horrified, and although early officials not only tolerated it but sent an official observer, pressure from missionaries as well as Hindu reformers led to it being banned in Calcutta in 1798 and the in all of Bengal in 1829 (with a general ban for India in 1861). An 1856 act allowed Hindu women to remarry. Another target was the Thuggee cult; the Thugs were professional bandits, robbers and murderers who ritually strangled their victims. The Thuggee and Dacoity Suppression Acts (a series of acts 1836-48). Some Thugs saw themselves as following the Hindu goddess Kali, but many were Muslim.

Another target of reformers was the educational and literary system, which sought to 'preserve' Indian literature and promote the development of a native administrative class. What this really meant was an emphasis on English language and literature and a Western literary canon on the one hand, and on the other the categorization of native culture (most notably Sanskrit language and literature) into Western patterns; British education and the English language were the means of reform, progress and civilization, while Sanskrit was the language of the past and of a noble but inferior culture, moreover British and other Western scholars were the experts of South Asian history and culture and taught it their way. At the same time, the British were fascinated by South Asian culture and sought to learn native languages and literature. Thus the inhabitant of India were Anglicized while some westerners were Orientalized (not to simplify the matter too much, but in many ways this is what makes possible modern credit card call centers in India and chicken tikka massala curry the unofficial national dish of the UK). Although many educational reformers had noble and lofty goals, and many tried to preserve and sustain the different native languages and cultures of South Asia, the educational reforms were disruptive in their own ways.

In 1837, Persian was replaced as the administrative language by English. At the same time, instruction in English and native languages was spreading, as the Company set up or encouraged schools, often parochial schools; the Muslim population of South Asia especially benefited. Three universities were established in 1857 at Calcutta, then Bombay, then Madras. The increased expansion of educational opportunities was for good and ill; for the latter, it further emphasized Anglicization while helping solidify a group of native administrators who often were pitted against their fellow natives.

The increasing pressures of British rule and social change coupled with a fear of imminent mass conversion to Christianity led to a major rebellion by native Indian troops (sepoys) known as the Indian Mutiny in 1857-58. There were atrocities on both sides, and if it were not for the divisions already present in South Asia (such as the different religions), then the British might have been driven out. As it was, a force of British, Sikhs, Gurhkas, and Pashtuns brutally suppressed the rebellion. For more on the Indian Mutiny, as well as the Sikhs and Gurkhas, see the optional 1857 Indian Mutiny .

 

Direct British Rule - the British Raj, 1858-1948

Following the Rebellion, control of India was transferred to the British Crown (the reigning monarch was Queen Victoria). For nearly a century, most of South Asia would be under British control. Some parts, mainly those from the East India Company, were administered directly; others parts remained under indigenous rule as dependencies or protectorates and were known as the 'princely states' (shown in yellow):

 

Government

A Secretary of State for India was added to the Prime Minister's Cabinet, and he was assisted by a small 'Council of India' in London. A Governor-General continued to run the government from Calcutta, and now that India was a Crown possession, he often was referred to as Viceroy, although he answered to the Secretary of State for India; he was assisted by an Executive Council. An Indian Civil Service, of both British and natives, was expanded to run the colony, and the army was a greater balance of religions and backgrounds than before mutiny, with many soldiers coming from the princely states. The first census was carried out in 1881, which numbered the population of the colony at 225 million persons. But economic growth was poor, and India's relative wealth (as measured in the share of the world's Gross Domestic Product) fell - the subcontinent was becoming poorer from colonialism, which in part spurred increasing nationalism in the latter years of the 19th century. The colony also suffered from a large number of famines and outbreaks of disease.

The colony of India became the cause of a series of wars with Afghanistan, which had became a site of conflict in the 'Great Game' between the UK and Russia over control and influence in Central Asia. Both the British and Russia wanted to secure Afghanistan, and the British in particular feared potential invasion of India unless they had control. The second Afghan War (1878-80) resulted in Britain acquiring the power over Afghanistan's foreign policy, although local rule was maintained; the Third Afghan War (1919) saw Afghan forces invade and force Britain to grant and guarantee their independence.

Meanwhile, due to rising nationalism, the colonial government looked for ways to shore up their position. In 1905, the colonial government enacted the Bengal Partition, creating provinces of West Bengal (predominantly Hindu) and East Bengal (predominantly Muslim) in an attempt to weaken the nationalist movement. The move was incredibly unpopular and in fact backfired, generating increases nationalistic feeling, and the partition was reversed in 1912.

Following World War I (in which more than a million Indian troops served overseas), Parliament passed another Government of India Act in 1919, which gave greater control to local governments. Some affairs - foreign affairs, defense, and so on - remained under the Viceroy but others were handed over to ministers and provincial councils, forming a diarchy (double government). The Imperial Legislative Council, which had developed out of a council advising the Governor-General and then Viceroy, was expanded in size and became the legislature for the colony, with a lower Legislative Assembly and an upper Rajya Sabha (Council of States). Some members were elected, others were nominated. In 1921, elected local councils were introduced.

Although granting more power and representation, the people of India had expected far more. In 1935, under increasing pressure from nationalists to grant more power to the inhabitants, Parliament passed the Government of India Act. This provided considerably autonomy and was supposed to create a Federation of India (the latter never happened, due to opposition by the princely states). The provinces were reorganized, and direct elections were held in 1937, expanding the suffrage considerably.

World War II brought matters to a head. India was critical for the UK and US in the battle against Japan, but nationalist movements demanded independence or massive concessions. In 1942 Sir Stafford Cripps visited India to meet with nationalist leaders and negotiate loyalty to Britain in exchange for self-government after the war. His proposals were rejected, and only massive numbers of arrests by the government kept the nationalist movements in check during the war.