Mauryan Empire & Buddhism

We are on much firmer ground for the history of South Asia as we move into the sixth century BCE. During the Vedic Age, South Asia had been split into numerous janapadas or tribal kingdoms. Clearly there was development and the shift of Aryans from pastoralism to settled agriculture - janapada means foothold or settlement - as well as religious development. By 600 BCE, the janapadas had coalesced into sixteen Mahajanapadas (great nations/kingdoms/states) and consolidation continued - several centuries later an empire would emerge, the Mauryan Empire. The sixth century also saw challenges to Vedic religion in the development of Buddhism and Jainism. Socio-economically, this period saw the rise of what would be the great South Asian urban centers and a common (not unified) economy. Foreign powers to the west - Persia and then Alexander the Great - became interested in India, and eventually trade would expand to the Middle East and the Roman Empire.

 

 

 Political Developments

Consolidation

The Mahajanapadas began developing circa 1200-1000 BCE and had fully emerged near the end of the Vedic Age, and consolidation continued. Most of these were monarchies of some form, but two were republics, and even in monarchies some communities had republican-style governments. The monarchies were on the Ganges plain, while the republics were in the northwest.

Kamboja, in the northwest, is an example of a republican government; occasional references to kings seem to indicate an individual more like a Roman consul than a true monarch. Their state even crossed over the Hindu Kush mountains in some areas, and much of their territory is in what is now Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and beyond. Scholars debate whether the people are properly Indo-Aryan or Indo-Iranian. They were famous for their horses and horsemen.

Magadha was one of the more significant of these mahajanapadas, located toward the east (see map above). It was expansionary, subsuming its neighbor of Anga, and later was responsible for Alexander the Great turning back. Magadha saw significant early urbanization in the 500s, with a strong economy, and its kings were important in the development and spread of both Buddhism and Jainism. The kingdom often was seen as different, if not 'wrong', by other realms, and the religious developments there suggest cultural differences with other Vedic and post-Vedic states. Magadha came to dominate and absorb many of its neighbors. Magadha's Nanda dynasty continued the expansion until their empire stretched from Bengal to the Punjab. Its founder, Mahapadma Nanda, was reputed to be the son of a barber and a prostitute who rose to power through immoral means - but that is often said of many empire-builders. He and his dynasty created a massive army, and created the first great empire in the region. Supposedly the army was so large - infantry, cavalry, and war elephants - that Alexander the Great's army refused to face it. Besides a military, the Nanda dynasty fostered economic development, with standardized measures (making trade easier), and they developed an administration and tax system.

 

Greeks and Persians

 As Magadha was developing and expanding, so too was a power in the west - the Persians, and later Alexander the Great (died 323), would conquer territory in the northwest and the Punjab. See Persians, Greeks, and Graeco-Buddhists (OPTIONAL)

 

The Maurya Empire

 In 323 BCE, Chandragupta Maurya (died circa 298/297) formed an army and began conquering parts of northwest Indian that had been under Macedonian control, taking advantage of the chaos following Alexander's death. His background is uncertain; some sources refer to him as a commoner, others as a noble; and in general, hard and fast facts on his rise to power are scarce. After taking control of some cities in the NW part of India, he fought the Nanda Empire as well. By 320 or so, he had defeated the Nanda Empire. Over the next two decades, he fought against Seleucus I, one of Alexander's generals who was building a new empire out of Alexander's eastern territories. By 303, Maurya had control of territory up to modern Afghanistan through conquest and treaty; Seleucus recognized Maurya's territory in exchange for 500 war elephants.

 

His son Bindrusa and grandson Ashoka the Great (ruled 269-232) continued to expand the empire until it contained nearly 2 million square miles with a population of 50-60 million, making it one of the greatest empires of antiquity (and approximately the same size as the Roman Empire at its height more than three centuries later). The unity fostered economic and cultural growth; Maurya and his dynasty built roads, established an irrigation infrastructure, and encouraged mining.

Ashoka the Great was a great general, but a bloody victory led him to embrace Buddhism and support non-violence and social reform in the empire - but he still kept a large standing army. He sponsored Buddhist monasteries and missionaries, and had diplomatic relations with Asian and Mediterranean neighbors. The Edicts of Ashoka, carved in stone, proclaimed his policies, and some were even written in Greek (one in Greek and Aramaic).

Ashoka on his chariot (1st c BCE):

One of the Edicts of Ashoka:

If you'd like to learn more, I recommend this BBC documentary (optional):

The Story of Ashoka , Jainism and Indian History BBC Links to an external site.

 

The Maurya dynasty collapsed in a coup in 184, breaking up and being followed by a succession of relatively short-lived dynasties.

 

Buddhism and Jainism

The upheaval connected to the unification of South Asian kingdoms and the new wave of urbanism reflected - or in some ways contributed to - major religious change. The strict nature of the caste system and the ritualistic nature of Hindusim chafed many and led to two new religions.

Buddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (died 483 BCE?). As with many religious figures, the Facts of his life are hard to find or corroborate; many sources indicate that he came from a princely family, but some scholars think he was more from an oligarchy. Even his dates of birth and death are not certain; and his teachings were not written down until centuries after his death.

What is known is that he started studying under Vedic masters, and became dissatisfied with the misery of the human condition, and sought a way to end the endless repetition of rebirth. He turned to asceticism but did not find the answer there; and so he took up meditation (dhyana), and sitting under the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya he achieved enlightenment and became known as the Buddha, or awakened one. The term comes from budhi, to awaken. The news brought others seeking enlightenment (dharma) who became his disciples. His followers spread his ideas, and by the end of the 1st c. BCE there were multiple variants of schools of Buddhist thought.

Buddha's path was a Middle Path: neither fully ascetic, nor indulgent. At the core of Buddhist thought are the Four Noble Truths: suffering (dukkha, the inability to be satisfied), the cause of suffering (samudaya, a collection of causes of suffering such as the cycle of birth, aging, and death), the end of suffering (nirodha), and the path to the end of suffering (magga, the path). Karma generated during life caused rebirth, at different levels of existence, and thus remaining trapped; enlightenment leads to Nirvana, the end of the cycle of rebirth (literally, becoming extinguished), a state of complete liberation. Liberation is reached through the Noble Eightfold Path (and other paths as well):

1. Right view
2. Right resolve
3. Right speech
4. Right conduct
5. Right livelihood
6. Right Effort
7. Right Mindfulness
8. Right samadhi (union)

Thus restraint, mindfulness, and proper conduct help end one's cravings to attain Nirvana. The Eightfold Path is often illustrated through the dharma wheel (dharmachakra):

In Buddhism, there is no belief in a personal god, nor concern with human-divine relationships. The only thing permanent is change, as the world is made and remade; and personal change is always possible.

Although focused on personal enlightenment, Buddhism contained a social critique as well, of the caste system and the overall suffering of people; much of this is contained in the story of the Buddha. What might be surprising, is that merchants found the teachings of Buddhism attractive as well for regulating commercial activities.

If you'd like to learn more about Buddhism, there is a good BBC documentary, which includes the story of Siddhartha - this is optional: The Life Of The Buddha Full BBC Documentary Links to an external site.

Jainism (Jain Dharma) was founded by Vardhaman Mahavira (died 477 BCE). Followers of Jainism are called Jains. Jainism comes from jina (victor), related to the victory over the cycle of rebirth. The main tenets are ahimsa (non-violence), anekantavada (many-sidedness), aparigraha (non-attachment), and asceticism; the most devout take five vows: non-violence, truth, not to steal, celibacy, and non-attachment. According to legend, Chandragupta Maurya near the end of his life gave his empire to his son so that he could become a Jaina monk.

Statue of Mahavira:

Jainism claims to be the oldest religion, but scholars see most of the 24 leaders (tirthankara) to be mythical, with the first historical one like in the 700s BCE and the second one being Vardhaman. According to teachings he was born into a royal family, which he abandoned in favor of asceticism, through which he gained kevala jnana or omniscience, and so attracted followers.

The similarities between Buddhism and Jainism are clear, but there are differences. Unlike Buddhism, Jainism did not reject the caste system. But both represent a challenge to a caste-based, militarized culture to one that also prized enlightenment.

 

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS

The combination of political establishment under the Nanda and then the Maurya Empire and the creation of two new religions, alongside Greek and Persian conquests (if only temporary) led to a flowering of arts and culture. The unification of Indian realms under the Maurya Empire contributed greatly to domestic and international trade. The treaty with the Seleucids turned the Khyber Pas into a major trade hub, with goods and ideas passing East-West. Ashoka names a number of Hellenistic rulers; and Rome's conquest of Egypt under Caesar brought Rome into contact with the South Asian world.

Eventually, the settlement of Greeks and other Hellenic peoples in or near South Asia led to a particular Graeco-Buddhist art (the Gandhara school) that also incorporated Persian influences: see Persians, Greeks, and Graeco-Buddhists (OPTIONAL).